A four stroke cycle for internal combustion engines consisting of the following operations First stroke suction into cylinder of explosive charge as of gas and air second stroke compression ignition and explosion of this charge third stroke the working stroke expansion of the gases fourth stroke expulsion of the products of combustion from the cylinder This is the cycle invented by Beau de Rochas in 1862 and applied by Dr Otto in 1877 in the Otto Crossley gas engine the first commercially successful internal combustion engine made...
Executory limitation. A limitation of a future interest by deed or will; if by will, it is also called an executory devise. The (English) Conveyancing Act, 1882 (45 & 46 Vict. c. 39), s. 10, restricted executory limitations of land contained in an instrument coming into operation after 1st January, 1883, by the enactment:'Where there is a person entitled to land for an estate in fee, or for a term of years absolute or determinable on life, or for term of life, with an executory limitation over on default or failure of all or any of his issue whether within or at any specified period of time or not, that executory limitation shall be or become void and incapable of taking effect, if and as soon as there is living any issue who has attained the age of 21 years, of the class on default or failure whereof the limitation over was to take effect.' See Re Booth, (1900) 1 Ch 768; Re Shrubb, 1910 WN 143.These provisions were re-enacted by s. 134 of the (English) Land Charges Act, 1925, and exte...
Penalty sale tax, penalty is not merely sanction. It is not merely adjunct to assessment. It is not merely consequential to assessment. It is not merely machinery. Penalty is in addition to tax and is a liability under the Act, Khemka & Co. (Agencies) Pvt. Ltd. v. State of Maharashtra, AIR 1975 SC 1549: (1975) 3 SCR 753: (1975) 2 SCC 22....
Weaker section of society, the expression 'weaker sections of society' includes also citizens of 'backward classes' who are covered by notification issued in pursuance to articles 15(4) and 16(4) of the Constitution, AIR 1988 MP 142 (144). [Constitution of India, Arts. 15(4) & 16(4)]Members of the Scheduled Castes and Schedules Tribes have ordinarily been accepted as belonging to the weaker sections. Attempt to bring in the test of economic means has often been tried but no guideline has been evolved. Apart from the members of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, there would be millions of other citizens who would also belong to the weaker sections. The Constitution makers intended all citizens of India belonging to the weaker sections to be benefited when Article 46 was incorporated in the Constitution. Parliament in adopting the same language in s. 21 of Act also intended people of all weaker sections to have the advantage. It is, therefore, appropriate that the Central Governm...
Agricultural Holdings Act, 1923 (English) (13 & 14 Geo. 5, cc. 9 and 25). By a series of statutes commencing with the Agricultural Holdings Act, 1875, statutory compensation has been provided for an outgoing agricultural tenant in respect of the improvements effected by him during his tenancy. The operation of this Act could be and frequently was excluded by agreement, but now the tenant cannot deprive himself by contract of the right to claim compensation which is conferred on him by the Act, although he may within limits substitute other benefits by agreement. The Act of 1923 (as amended by the Agricultural Holdings Amendment Act, 1923) repeals and consolidates all the earlier statutes dealing with the subject, and confers on outgoing tenants of 'holdings' the rights and benefits briefly outlined below. The term 'holding' means any parcel of land held by a tenant which is wholly agricultural or wholly pastoral, or in whole or in part cultivated as a market garden, and which is not le...
Cock oven plant, 'Coke oven plant' means the plant and equipment with which the manufacture of hard coke has been or is being, carried on, and includes-(i) all lands, building, works, machinery and equipment, vehicles, railways, tramways and sidings, belonging to, or in the coke oven plant, (ii) all workshop belonging to the coke oven plant, including buildings, machinery, instruments, stores, equipment of such workshops and the lands on which such workshops stand, (iii) all coke in stock or under production, and other stores, stocks and instruments, belonging to the coke oven plant, (iv) all power stations belonging to the coke oven plant or operated for supplying electricity for the purpose of working the coke oven plant or a number of coke oven plants, (v) all lands, buildings and equipment belonging to the coke oven plant where the washing of coal is carried on, (vi) all other fixed assets, movable or immovable, and current assets belonging to a coke oven plant, whether within its ...
Dissolved Company, 'dissolved company' means the Institute of Company Secretaries of India registered under the Companies Act, 1956, [Company Secretaries Act, 1980 (56 of 1980), s. 2(1)(e)]...
Fellow, 'Fellow' means a Fellow Member of the Institute. [Company Secretaries Act, 1980 (56 of 1980), s. 2(1) (f)]Means a fellow member of the Institute, Actuaries Act, 2006, s. 2(g)....
Forest land, without evidence to show that forest land had been cleared and prepared or earmarked for agricultural purposes, it must be treated as prima facie non-agricultural land, Controller of Estate Duty v. V. Venugopala Varma Rajah, AIR 1977 SC 121: (1976) 4 SCC 3: (1977) 1 SCR 346.The term 'forest land', occurring in s. 2, will not only include 'forest' as understood in the dictionary sense, but also any area recorded as forest in the Government record irrespective of the ownership, T.N. Godavarman v. Union of India, AIR 1997 SC 1228 (1230). [Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980, s. 2]See also W.L. Wadhera v. Union of India, (2002) 9 SCC 108: AIR 2002 SC 1913.The expression 'forest land' should be given an extended meaning to cover a track of land covered with trees, shrubs, vegetation and undergrowth under mingled with trees with pastures, be it of natural growth or man made forestation. Samatha v. State of Andhra Pradesh, AIR 1997 SC 3297 (3380). [Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980, s....
Pains and penalties, Bills of, Acts of Parliament to condemn particular persons for treason or felony, or to inflict pains and penalties beyond or contrary to the Common Law, to serve a special purpose. They are in fact new laws, made pro re nataa. It is an incident of such bills that persons who are to be affected by them are entitled by custom to be heard at the Bar of the House in person or by counsel. But on a bill to disfranchise the borough of St. Albans, this claim was disallowed....